Mass media denotes a section of the media specifically designed to reach a very large audience such as the population of a nation state.Mass media are defined as media which have their proper program and constitute their own audience. Mass media research, accordingly, deals with the production of programs and the consumption of the audience. For both perspectives, research topics are justified, data sources are introduced, and recommendation for the research infrastructure are given.
Research is an attempt to discover something. The importance of research becomes clear when we understand something about business(although this understanding also relates to everyday personal life such as relationships with family, friends, and co-workers.)
Researchers are the people who find out what people want and need so that decision-makers can give it to them. Researchers also get involved in the other two steps of the process. Researchers find out the best way to accomplish desires of what people want.
Research is involved in every step of the process. And regardless of whether we are involved in; writing, production, talent, advertising, distribution or any other area, research is involved. There is no area of mass media that is not affected by research.
Research can be very informal, with few, if any, specific plans or steps, or it can be formal, with the researcher following highly defined and exactly procedures. All research, whether formal or informal, begins with a basic question or proposition about a specific phenomenon. These questions can be answered to some degree with well-designed research studies.
Research helps us to learn the best way to collect information and analyze it. For radio program, research help to understand the target audience, audience’s interest. Research in mass media is used to verify or refute gut feelings or intuition for decision makers. Although common sense is sometimes accurate, media decision makes need additional objective information to evaluate problems, especially when they make decisions that involve large sums of money.
Research is not limited only to decision making situation. It is also widely used in theoretical areas to attempt to describe the media, to analyze media effects on consumers, to understand audience behavior, and so on. Everyday, there are references in the media to audience surveys, public opinion polls, growth projections or status reports of one medium or another, or advertising or public relations campaigns.
The explosion of mass media research is mainly attributable to the rapidly developing technology of the media industry. Because of this growth in research, both applied and theoretical approaches have taken on more significance in the decision-making process of the mass media and in our understanding of media.
Research in media can be done in various ways like qualitative research, quantitative research, content analysis, surveys, etc. The effectiveness of messages that are sent by mass media is measured by different research method which help to improve its content and introduce itself in better way.
Research is used extensively in all of the mass media:
• Electronic media research provides information about what audience likes and dislikes, analyses of different types of programming, demographic and lifestyle information about the audience.
• Print- It does research in readership, circulation, management, etc.
• Advertising and public relations- It does research on copy testing (research on the effectiveness of advertising), reach and frequency, campaign assessment (success of an ad campaign), public relations, etc.
• Internet- It is useful for on-line research, website research, music testing, etc.
It is because of research in media, we have been able to grow media as an industry. Research has made a significant development in the field of media. It help us get new information. It has helped to use new technology for its development. It is only due to research, we get valid knowledge that we can prove and trust it without any hesitation. Therefore, for all these reasons, research is very significant in mass media.
Reference
Adhikary Nirmala Mani (2006) Understanding Mass Media Research (1st ed.)
Prashanti Pustak Bhandar
Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2003). Mass media research: An introduction (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Website
www.books.google.com
www.ideas.repec.org
www.ratswd.de
Wednesday, September 16, 2009
Friday, June 19, 2009
Development journalism
Media has played very important role in development but the agenda of development hasn’t been understood. There is misunderstanding that development means construction and infrastructure. At very basic level, there is the problem of illiteracy. Development is such agenda that is bringing people together.
Development journalism should focus on the needs of the poor, the deprived, the marginalized and emphasis their effective participation in development planning. Development is about ‘highlighting what people are doing to help transform their lives. It is seen as humanity’s common objective and a means to eradicate poverty and protect the environment.
Development can be seen in two ways; Infrastructural development like constructions of road, health post, electricity, etc and Freedom, which is related with human rights protection, human development, economic development, etc. Development must be talked of in concrete and measurable terms.
There are three reasons of poverty- because of conflict, due to natural disasters and due to recklessness of government. Media has done reporting in these three causes. Besides these, development projects and plans should be reported in critical way. There are many global issues but we are not being able to criticize these issues.
Western media says development journalism is outdated practice. Nepal has signed ‘Millennium development goals’ which was introduced to reduce poverty and impacts of HIV/AIDS, malaria, to empower women, to reduce mortality rate, death rate, etc. But media is not able to do critical analysis. We hardly find the issues related to development. News analyses are there but they are guided by political analysis. There is no specialization in development journalism. There can be reporter who can do entertainment reporting in morning and in evening, reporting related with development.
Media access in Nepali life is very low because of development. Government has promised to provide TV in every household but there is no electricity in houses. Radios in rural areas are used to know time. There are no people to invest their money in development. People seek for profit only.
Government should help journalists to get information throughout the nation. Governments can help to educate their citizens and enlist cooperation on major development projects. However, a government can also use the idea of development to restrict freedom of speech for journalists. Journalists are told not to report on certain issues because it will impact the developmental activities of the nation in question, and therefore citizens are not actually being given access to the whole picture.
Development journalism should have become applied subject. But it has just become an intellectual subject. Journalists committed to development should look at the situation beyond just reporting it. Reporters have not been able to bring glamour in part of development. News brings change through persuasion and pressure. Newstory doesn’t serve the both interest. There is no access. Even if they write, they use jargons which can be understood by many people. There needs to be followup then only development journalism can flourish in Nepal.
Lecture by Laxman Datt Pant in Martin Chautari,28th May 2009
Development journalism should focus on the needs of the poor, the deprived, the marginalized and emphasis their effective participation in development planning. Development is about ‘highlighting what people are doing to help transform their lives. It is seen as humanity’s common objective and a means to eradicate poverty and protect the environment.
Development can be seen in two ways; Infrastructural development like constructions of road, health post, electricity, etc and Freedom, which is related with human rights protection, human development, economic development, etc. Development must be talked of in concrete and measurable terms.
There are three reasons of poverty- because of conflict, due to natural disasters and due to recklessness of government. Media has done reporting in these three causes. Besides these, development projects and plans should be reported in critical way. There are many global issues but we are not being able to criticize these issues.
Western media says development journalism is outdated practice. Nepal has signed ‘Millennium development goals’ which was introduced to reduce poverty and impacts of HIV/AIDS, malaria, to empower women, to reduce mortality rate, death rate, etc. But media is not able to do critical analysis. We hardly find the issues related to development. News analyses are there but they are guided by political analysis. There is no specialization in development journalism. There can be reporter who can do entertainment reporting in morning and in evening, reporting related with development.
Media access in Nepali life is very low because of development. Government has promised to provide TV in every household but there is no electricity in houses. Radios in rural areas are used to know time. There are no people to invest their money in development. People seek for profit only.
Government should help journalists to get information throughout the nation. Governments can help to educate their citizens and enlist cooperation on major development projects. However, a government can also use the idea of development to restrict freedom of speech for journalists. Journalists are told not to report on certain issues because it will impact the developmental activities of the nation in question, and therefore citizens are not actually being given access to the whole picture.
Development journalism should have become applied subject. But it has just become an intellectual subject. Journalists committed to development should look at the situation beyond just reporting it. Reporters have not been able to bring glamour in part of development. News brings change through persuasion and pressure. Newstory doesn’t serve the both interest. There is no access. Even if they write, they use jargons which can be understood by many people. There needs to be followup then only development journalism can flourish in Nepal.
Lecture by Laxman Datt Pant in Martin Chautari,28th May 2009
Tuesday, June 16, 2009
Trip to Radio Nepal
On May 20th, 2009, Bachelors in Media Studies(1st and 2nd year) students of Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, made a trip to the national Radio Station, Radio Nepal facilitated by Nirmala Mani Adhikari.All students were very excited for the visit. After 1 and half an hour drive from Dhulikhel, students reached to their destination but they were very exhausted to wait for 1 hr outside the Singha Durbar for the permission to enter. However, after entering to the Singha Durbar, everyone's energy boosted up to see the very nice and clean premises of Singha Durbar.
Radio Nepal was established on 1st April 1951. Initially, the transmission covered duration of 4 hours and 30 minutes through a 250 Watt SW transmitter. Over the years, Radio Nepal has strengthened its institutional capacity considerably and diversified itself in terms of programme format, technical efficiency and coverage. Radio Nepal airs programmes on Short Wave, Medium Wave and FM frequencies. Radio Nepal recognizes that its primary obligation is to serve its listeners. It has been providing various programs aimed at creating mass awareness in its attempt to reflect the views of all sections of the society.
Radio Nepal has its own studios for programme production, music recording, drama recording, talk shows and news broadcasts. Everyone tried their hand in the newsroom by having their voice record through mic and headphone. A music library at its premises in Singh Durbar has a collection of about 40,000 songs including lok geet to pop songs. Students got very delighted to meet the famous singer, Meera Rana, who is currently looking after the tape department.
The Broadcasting Headquarters at Singha Durbar in Kathmandu has two broadcasting houses consisting of one drama studio, two music studios, one reporting studio, three continuity studios, one news studio and seven programme production studios. One of the music studios is equipped with a 24 track recording facility. This studio is open for hiring purposes for anyone desirous of recording music digitally whether solo track or for albums after payment of studio charges which are very relatively reasonable compared to other private studios. The complex also has one open air live theatre facility for functions and musical performances. Foreign broadcasting Stations also make use of this Studio facilities and transmitters for live and other broadcasts on a rental basis. Like other transmitting stations, the Head quarters also has a 100 kVA stand by diesel generator to cope with occasional power failure.
Nevertheless, the trip was organized to make the students familiar with the environment of Radio station and its work. It was very fruitful, informative and entertaining.
Radio Nepal was established on 1st April 1951. Initially, the transmission covered duration of 4 hours and 30 minutes through a 250 Watt SW transmitter. Over the years, Radio Nepal has strengthened its institutional capacity considerably and diversified itself in terms of programme format, technical efficiency and coverage. Radio Nepal airs programmes on Short Wave, Medium Wave and FM frequencies. Radio Nepal recognizes that its primary obligation is to serve its listeners. It has been providing various programs aimed at creating mass awareness in its attempt to reflect the views of all sections of the society.
Radio Nepal has its own studios for programme production, music recording, drama recording, talk shows and news broadcasts. Everyone tried their hand in the newsroom by having their voice record through mic and headphone. A music library at its premises in Singh Durbar has a collection of about 40,000 songs including lok geet to pop songs. Students got very delighted to meet the famous singer, Meera Rana, who is currently looking after the tape department.
The Broadcasting Headquarters at Singha Durbar in Kathmandu has two broadcasting houses consisting of one drama studio, two music studios, one reporting studio, three continuity studios, one news studio and seven programme production studios. One of the music studios is equipped with a 24 track recording facility. This studio is open for hiring purposes for anyone desirous of recording music digitally whether solo track or for albums after payment of studio charges which are very relatively reasonable compared to other private studios. The complex also has one open air live theatre facility for functions and musical performances. Foreign broadcasting Stations also make use of this Studio facilities and transmitters for live and other broadcasts on a rental basis. Like other transmitting stations, the Head quarters also has a 100 kVA stand by diesel generator to cope with occasional power failure.
Nevertheless, the trip was organized to make the students familiar with the environment of Radio station and its work. It was very fruitful, informative and entertaining.
Wednesday, June 3, 2009
Book fair rocked for booklovers
Though many easily accessible and cheap media are available, book hasnt stopped attracting people. All book lovers must have visited the fair which started from 15th May till 23rd May, 2009.
The 13th Nepal Education and Book Fair was held at Bhrikuti Mandap which was organized by Global Exposition and Management Servicing Pvt. Ltd. with the cooperation with National Booksellers and Publishers Association of Nepal and sponsors Padmashree Group of Insitutions, Informatics College, Ekta, Indo-World, Worldlink and Himalayan Infosys. Around 1,50,000 visitors were expected. There were total of 160 stalls. Many famous Book Sellers like Mandala Book Point, Pairavi Prakashan, Ratna Pustak Bhandar had participated in the fair. Students from different schools like Princeton International Boarding School, Bright Future H.S.S., Pacific Academy,Shikhar Boarding School, etc had come to visit the fair.
People argue that books are much more expensive but the money hasnt stopped its lovers from buying it. The fair had novels, course book, programming books, biographies, childrens' book and many more. One of the visitors, Sanjay Bajracharya bought 3 books worth Rs. 5000 while another visitor, Bibek had a list of books to buy.
Beside the Book Fair, Nepal Science and Exhibition and Competition also attracted many visitors. It started from 21st May till 23rd May. Goldengate College, V.S. Niketan had participated in the exhibiition. Keshab Khatri, manager of GEMS, shared, “this type of science exhibition is held for the first time in Nepa. It has given platform to students to expose their talent not only in their college but also outside the college. It has also increased the interest of people to visit the fair.”
However, more and more people are getting into reading books even in this busy schedule. It has become one of the entertainment means for many and for others, a source for learning. This type of exhibition has made all book lovers to buy varieties of books in same floor and in cheaper price.
The 13th Nepal Education and Book Fair was held at Bhrikuti Mandap which was organized by Global Exposition and Management Servicing Pvt. Ltd. with the cooperation with National Booksellers and Publishers Association of Nepal and sponsors Padmashree Group of Insitutions, Informatics College, Ekta, Indo-World, Worldlink and Himalayan Infosys. Around 1,50,000 visitors were expected. There were total of 160 stalls. Many famous Book Sellers like Mandala Book Point, Pairavi Prakashan, Ratna Pustak Bhandar had participated in the fair. Students from different schools like Princeton International Boarding School, Bright Future H.S.S., Pacific Academy,Shikhar Boarding School, etc had come to visit the fair.
People argue that books are much more expensive but the money hasnt stopped its lovers from buying it. The fair had novels, course book, programming books, biographies, childrens' book and many more. One of the visitors, Sanjay Bajracharya bought 3 books worth Rs. 5000 while another visitor, Bibek had a list of books to buy.
Beside the Book Fair, Nepal Science and Exhibition and Competition also attracted many visitors. It started from 21st May till 23rd May. Goldengate College, V.S. Niketan had participated in the exhibiition. Keshab Khatri, manager of GEMS, shared, “this type of science exhibition is held for the first time in Nepa. It has given platform to students to expose their talent not only in their college but also outside the college. It has also increased the interest of people to visit the fair.”
However, more and more people are getting into reading books even in this busy schedule. It has become one of the entertainment means for many and for others, a source for learning. This type of exhibition has made all book lovers to buy varieties of books in same floor and in cheaper price.
Founder of Changu Narayan; not Mandev
Changu Narayan Temple, one of the most beautiful World Heritage Sites, stands on a hilltop at the eastern end of the valley, about 6km north of Bhaktapur and 22km from Kathmandu. It came in existence in 4th century. Whenever we ask anyone about the establishment of this traditional beauty, everyone says it’s Mandev who built Changu Narayan. But people are not aware of the fact that it was not Mandev, it was King Haridutta Burma who actually built the Changu Narayan.
King Haridutta was the ruler 9yrs before Mandev. In the inscription of Mandev, the works for making guthis and land has been mentioned but there is nothing about Mandev's contribution in building the temple. Had it be the Mandev, there would have been the name of the founder as Mandev. There are other works mentioned in the inscription but not about the establishment.
Saturday, May 9, 2009
Gonzo Journalism
Gonzo journalism is a style of journalism which is written subjectively, often including the reporter as part of the story through a first person narrative. The style tends to blend factual and fictional elements to emphasize an underlying message and engage the reader. The word Gonzo was first used in 1970 to describe an article by Hunter S. Thompson, who later popularized the style. The term has since been applied to other subjective artistic endeavors.
Gonzo journalism tends to favor style over accuracy and often uses personal experiences and emotions to provide context for the topic or event being covered. It disregards the 'polished' edited product favored by newspaper media and strives for the gritty factor. Use of quotations, sarcasm, humor, exaggeration, and even profanity is common. The use of Gonzo journalism suggests that journalism can be truthful without striving for objectivity and is loosely equivalent to an editorial.
Gonzo Journalism is reporting fact like fiction after the first hand experience of reporter that is subjective.
In gonzo journalism, a journalist is free to participate in events and circumstances which may themselves be considered newsworthy. A gonzo journalist can actively participate in a political candidate's campaign without making any effort to appear politically neutral or unbiased.
The purpose of gonzo journalism would be to produce a brutally honest or highly subjective journalistic piece based on the real experience of a trained reporter writing from the inside. A gonzo journalist is not necessarily protected from law enforcement efforts, so even the legal ramifications of the journalist's actions could become part of the news story.
Critics of gonzo journalism consider the practice to be little more than sanctioned hedonism. Responsible journalists should not take it upon themselves to instigate news items or become completely immersed in the very culture or circumstances they have been assigned to observe. Gonzo journalists are a rare breed of writer, often possessing larger-than-life personalities and a "gonzo" or go-for-broke approach to the subject at hand.
Example of Gonzo Journalism is travel and living show. They travel to different places and explain it to the viewers according to their experience.
Gonzo journalism tends to favor style over accuracy and often uses personal experiences and emotions to provide context for the topic or event being covered. It disregards the 'polished' edited product favored by newspaper media and strives for the gritty factor. Use of quotations, sarcasm, humor, exaggeration, and even profanity is common. The use of Gonzo journalism suggests that journalism can be truthful without striving for objectivity and is loosely equivalent to an editorial.
Gonzo Journalism is reporting fact like fiction after the first hand experience of reporter that is subjective.
In gonzo journalism, a journalist is free to participate in events and circumstances which may themselves be considered newsworthy. A gonzo journalist can actively participate in a political candidate's campaign without making any effort to appear politically neutral or unbiased.
The purpose of gonzo journalism would be to produce a brutally honest or highly subjective journalistic piece based on the real experience of a trained reporter writing from the inside. A gonzo journalist is not necessarily protected from law enforcement efforts, so even the legal ramifications of the journalist's actions could become part of the news story.
Critics of gonzo journalism consider the practice to be little more than sanctioned hedonism. Responsible journalists should not take it upon themselves to instigate news items or become completely immersed in the very culture or circumstances they have been assigned to observe. Gonzo journalists are a rare breed of writer, often possessing larger-than-life personalities and a "gonzo" or go-for-broke approach to the subject at hand.
Example of Gonzo Journalism is travel and living show. They travel to different places and explain it to the viewers according to their experience.
Sunday, May 3, 2009
Journalism and Democracy
Journalism is a special branch of mass communication and is playing vital role in modern society. The journalism is mainly intended to inform the audiences regarding what is happening around them. The importance of journalism comes from the people's right to opinion and expression. Journalism is taken as inseparable part of nay democratic system. The press plays vital role in democratic society. It is an institution in its own right. Journalism has been considered as the fourth state in democratic system.
Journalism is the 'voice of voiceless' and it plays the role of 'watchdog' in the society. It is strong bridge between concerning authorities and the people. It handles people issues. In fact, press is the people's open forum. Press makes such an environment where people get information and be prepared in taking part in democracy. People's participation is the foundation of democracy. Press is the pillar of democracy.
Media functions in democracy as
•Informing the public
•Investigation
•Analysis
•Social Surveillance
•Public forum
•Mobilization
Mass media act as a link between the government and the people, thus building up the political fabric of the democracy. There are several channels through which the political leaders can express their views and rally public support for their policies. Through the mass media, the government can inform, explain and convince the public over their program .
The news media play also the vital role as 'watchdog' over the government, looking out for instances of malfunction and corruption. The public would have far less control over the affairs of the government without the probing questions of investigative reporters.
Access to information is essential to the health of democracy for at least two reasons. First, it ensures that citizens make responsible, informed choices rather than acting out of ignorance or misinformation. Second, information serves a “checking function” by ensuring that elected representatives uphold their oaths of office and carry out the wishes of those who elected them.
In some societies, an antagonistic relationship between media and government represents a vital and healthy element of fully functioning democracies. In post-conflict or ethnically homogenous societies such a conflictual, tensionridden relationship may not be appropriate, but the role of the press to disseminate information as a way of mediating between the state and all facets of civil society remains critical.
While media is considered to be a part of the civil society arena, it is well known that media overlaps other functional areas of democracy and governance. For example, support for media may yield results in governance activities, particularly those related to decentralization, anti-corruption, and citizen participation in the policy process. The rule of law may be further institutionalized by support for an independent media that keeps a check on the judiciary, reports on the courts, and promotes a legal enabling environment suitable for press freedom. Free and fair elections conducted through transparent processes require a media sector which gives candidates equal access, and relationship between media and society, and the most effective ways to strengthen the media's contribution to democracy. Given this, some missions have been hesitant to engage in media sector support, even though they recognize the important role it plays in democratic transition and consolidation. Other missions, daunted by the difficulty of reporting results in this field, have decided not to undertake media activities or to focus exclusively on training. Contextual factors such as the lack of a legal enabling environment and political will within the government, business, or civil society to support media freedom all constrain missions' efforts in media sector support.
Within the context of supporting democratic transitions, the goal of media development generally should be to move the media from one that is directed or even overtly controlled by government or private interests to one that is more open and has a degree of editorial independence that serves the public interest. If the media is to have any meaningful role in democracy, then the ultimate goal of media assistance should be to develop a range of diverse mediums and voices that are credible, and to create and strengthen a sector that promotes such outlets. Credible outlets enable citizens to have access to information that they need to make informed decisions and to participate in society.
A media sector supportive of democracy would be one that has a degree of editorial independence, is financially viable, has diverse and plural voices, and serves the public interest.
The public interest is defined as representing a plurality of voices both through a greater number of outlets and through the diversity of views and voices reflected within one outlet.
Sibert, Peterson and Schramm tried to understand the intterrelationship between political system and media system. In four theories of press, Sibert, Peterson and Schramm assert that the press is always a reflection of the social and political configuration within which it operates. As they exist in free and democratic nations, the North American press then, espouses Liberal ideas and principles. These principles that comprise two major theories of study, the Social Responsibility and Libertarian theory, are the basis upon which the free press should and does run in a democratic society.
In Authoritarian theory, the state system requires direct governmental control of the mass media.The media in authoritarian class are not allowed to print or broadcast anything, which could undermine the established authority, and any offense to the existing political values is avoided. Authoritarian system can be found in Myanmar, Saudi Arabia, etc. Press works as mouthpiece of government.
In libertarian theory, media serves to provide a forum in which people can exchange ideasThe media and government are interdependent of each other, and the media frequently challenges government.
In Soviet Theory, as authoritarian, acknowledge the government as superior to the media institutions. The mass media in Soviet model is expected to self regulatory with regard to the content of their messages. The government owns the media and uses for its own greater causes. It accepts no challenges to its authority. Free expression in not valued in this system and is often punishable.
In Social Responsibility theory, media are free and have editorial independence. Government and media are separate but both interact with each other. The press on its own sees its role as serving both its financial needs and serving the public's need for information.
Journalism plays a role of mediator between citizens and politicians. People’s voices are heard through media. Media gives citizens direct access to the public sphere, in the form of open forums, talk shows, live phone calling programs, studio debates about public affairs etc.
The representative function of journalism is today enhanced by the availability of fast, interactive technologies such as e-mail, text messaging, blogging and many more. All of which provide new ways for citizens to communicate with politicians and participate in public debate. These technologies fuel the democracy to become more developed.
Media played important role in bringing democratic struggle of our country. During the Janaandolan II, King Gyanendra took power and attacked Nepali press. Lots of foreign news channels were banned to broadcast in Nepal. Kantipur contributed a lot during this period. News papers were not allowed to publish against the government and F.M. radios were not allowed to broadcast news. But, after democracy, many new channels like Sagarmatha, A venues and other radio stations started.
Democracy also ensures press freedom. Media are controlled by the government in China. People are deprived of getting information but in democratic country like ours, people enjoy the right of getting information.
A responsible media equally helps in socialization of people into citizenship, democratization of the State and political society, institutionalization of civic culture through unfettered flow of information, and rationalized use of power in social relations. In a nascent democracy like Nepal, media can also help voters with the contents of civic and political education and strengthen the culture of democracy.
Media thus perform vital tasks of informing, socializing, communicating and articulating the power of the public and preparing them for social transformation and good governance.
It is government who regulates the nation so media should cooperate with government. The government has significant role in regulating. By various means, sometime government regulates, sometimes facilitates and sometimes develops the press. In the country like ours, government is the major advertisers like advertising about poliothopa, vaccination, use of CFL bulb. Besides, government needs to communicate with people and they choose media as tool.
Media can have editorial independence only if there is democracy. It can work freely without the intervention of government. Hence, journalism and democracy are interdependent.
Reference
www.adrianmonck.com
www.nepalnews.com.np
www.usaid.gov
www.8rooks.com
Journalism is the 'voice of voiceless' and it plays the role of 'watchdog' in the society. It is strong bridge between concerning authorities and the people. It handles people issues. In fact, press is the people's open forum. Press makes such an environment where people get information and be prepared in taking part in democracy. People's participation is the foundation of democracy. Press is the pillar of democracy.
Media functions in democracy as
•Informing the public
•Investigation
•Analysis
•Social Surveillance
•Public forum
•Mobilization
Mass media act as a link between the government and the people, thus building up the political fabric of the democracy. There are several channels through which the political leaders can express their views and rally public support for their policies. Through the mass media, the government can inform, explain and convince the public over their program .
The news media play also the vital role as 'watchdog' over the government, looking out for instances of malfunction and corruption. The public would have far less control over the affairs of the government without the probing questions of investigative reporters.
Access to information is essential to the health of democracy for at least two reasons. First, it ensures that citizens make responsible, informed choices rather than acting out of ignorance or misinformation. Second, information serves a “checking function” by ensuring that elected representatives uphold their oaths of office and carry out the wishes of those who elected them.
In some societies, an antagonistic relationship between media and government represents a vital and healthy element of fully functioning democracies. In post-conflict or ethnically homogenous societies such a conflictual, tensionridden relationship may not be appropriate, but the role of the press to disseminate information as a way of mediating between the state and all facets of civil society remains critical.
While media is considered to be a part of the civil society arena, it is well known that media overlaps other functional areas of democracy and governance. For example, support for media may yield results in governance activities, particularly those related to decentralization, anti-corruption, and citizen participation in the policy process. The rule of law may be further institutionalized by support for an independent media that keeps a check on the judiciary, reports on the courts, and promotes a legal enabling environment suitable for press freedom. Free and fair elections conducted through transparent processes require a media sector which gives candidates equal access, and relationship between media and society, and the most effective ways to strengthen the media's contribution to democracy. Given this, some missions have been hesitant to engage in media sector support, even though they recognize the important role it plays in democratic transition and consolidation. Other missions, daunted by the difficulty of reporting results in this field, have decided not to undertake media activities or to focus exclusively on training. Contextual factors such as the lack of a legal enabling environment and political will within the government, business, or civil society to support media freedom all constrain missions' efforts in media sector support.
Within the context of supporting democratic transitions, the goal of media development generally should be to move the media from one that is directed or even overtly controlled by government or private interests to one that is more open and has a degree of editorial independence that serves the public interest. If the media is to have any meaningful role in democracy, then the ultimate goal of media assistance should be to develop a range of diverse mediums and voices that are credible, and to create and strengthen a sector that promotes such outlets. Credible outlets enable citizens to have access to information that they need to make informed decisions and to participate in society.
A media sector supportive of democracy would be one that has a degree of editorial independence, is financially viable, has diverse and plural voices, and serves the public interest.
The public interest is defined as representing a plurality of voices both through a greater number of outlets and through the diversity of views and voices reflected within one outlet.
Sibert, Peterson and Schramm tried to understand the intterrelationship between political system and media system. In four theories of press, Sibert, Peterson and Schramm assert that the press is always a reflection of the social and political configuration within which it operates. As they exist in free and democratic nations, the North American press then, espouses Liberal ideas and principles. These principles that comprise two major theories of study, the Social Responsibility and Libertarian theory, are the basis upon which the free press should and does run in a democratic society.
In Authoritarian theory, the state system requires direct governmental control of the mass media.The media in authoritarian class are not allowed to print or broadcast anything, which could undermine the established authority, and any offense to the existing political values is avoided. Authoritarian system can be found in Myanmar, Saudi Arabia, etc. Press works as mouthpiece of government.
In libertarian theory, media serves to provide a forum in which people can exchange ideasThe media and government are interdependent of each other, and the media frequently challenges government.
In Soviet Theory, as authoritarian, acknowledge the government as superior to the media institutions. The mass media in Soviet model is expected to self regulatory with regard to the content of their messages. The government owns the media and uses for its own greater causes. It accepts no challenges to its authority. Free expression in not valued in this system and is often punishable.
In Social Responsibility theory, media are free and have editorial independence. Government and media are separate but both interact with each other. The press on its own sees its role as serving both its financial needs and serving the public's need for information.
Journalism plays a role of mediator between citizens and politicians. People’s voices are heard through media. Media gives citizens direct access to the public sphere, in the form of open forums, talk shows, live phone calling programs, studio debates about public affairs etc.
The representative function of journalism is today enhanced by the availability of fast, interactive technologies such as e-mail, text messaging, blogging and many more. All of which provide new ways for citizens to communicate with politicians and participate in public debate. These technologies fuel the democracy to become more developed.
Media played important role in bringing democratic struggle of our country. During the Janaandolan II, King Gyanendra took power and attacked Nepali press. Lots of foreign news channels were banned to broadcast in Nepal. Kantipur contributed a lot during this period. News papers were not allowed to publish against the government and F.M. radios were not allowed to broadcast news. But, after democracy, many new channels like Sagarmatha, A venues and other radio stations started.
Democracy also ensures press freedom. Media are controlled by the government in China. People are deprived of getting information but in democratic country like ours, people enjoy the right of getting information.
A responsible media equally helps in socialization of people into citizenship, democratization of the State and political society, institutionalization of civic culture through unfettered flow of information, and rationalized use of power in social relations. In a nascent democracy like Nepal, media can also help voters with the contents of civic and political education and strengthen the culture of democracy.
Media thus perform vital tasks of informing, socializing, communicating and articulating the power of the public and preparing them for social transformation and good governance.
It is government who regulates the nation so media should cooperate with government. The government has significant role in regulating. By various means, sometime government regulates, sometimes facilitates and sometimes develops the press. In the country like ours, government is the major advertisers like advertising about poliothopa, vaccination, use of CFL bulb. Besides, government needs to communicate with people and they choose media as tool.
Media can have editorial independence only if there is democracy. It can work freely without the intervention of government. Hence, journalism and democracy are interdependent.
Reference
www.adrianmonck.com
www.nepalnews.com.np
www.usaid.gov
www.8rooks.com
Role of Culture in forming Personality
Personality is the key factor in defining individual uniqueness and shaping an individual's course through life. Culture is the way of life. Culture is not only our conscious values, but also it's our assumptions about the way things are. Humans perceive and believe according to their cultural development. Culture represents one of the important factors of the personality modeling. The study of culture and personality seeks to understand the growth and development of personal or social identity as it relates to the surrounding social environment.
The cultural features of a society generate certain distinctive features in the children’s socialization. By using some common socializing elements and mechanisms, there may be formed common features of personality or a configuration of personality features typical for the members of a society. Within each society, there are one or several types of personality that the children have to copy. In the European cultures or in those of European type, to the main type of personality are associated the following features: sociability, kindness, co-operation, and even competitiveness, orientation to practice and efficiency, punctuality. The family and other factors of socialization transmit to the children these features, the conformation to them being controlled at a societal level.
The relation between culture and personality is obvious, while the personality forming consists mostly in the internalisation of the elements of a culture. In a stable and integrated culture, the personality is an individual aspect of the culture, and the culture is a collective aspect of the personality. In each society, the dominant culture coexists with a certain number of subcultures and countercultures. The socialization made within a subculture adds specific elements to the modal personality features. Thus, there appear differentiated personalities in relation to the subcultures (these latter being constituted on ethnical, social class, religious and occupational criteria.). One can differentiate the personality of a villager from that of a townsman, the personality of a worker from that of an intellectual, the personality of a Jew from that of a Turk etc.
Margaret Mead, a well-known pioneer in the field of Psychological Anthropology, studied cross-cultural patterns of child rearing. Mead's most famous study took place in 1925 in Samoa. Mead studied Samoan adolescents and determined that they were not marked by tension and rebellion as were adolescents in the United States. During her study, Samoan children were found to have more casual relationships with their parents and they also learn about sexuality naturally in the course of their daily lives. It was Mead's determination that American teenagers find adolescence stressful because they learn about sexuality at the same time they must break strong bonds with their parents. Mead also studied gender roles in three New Guinea groups and concluded that gender roles are not entirely biologically determined, but are learned during the process of enculturation.
Cultural psychologists have noted that some aspects of personality differ across cultural groups. For example, Americans and Asians have slightly different conceptions of self. American culture promotes a view of the self as independent. American children tend to describe themselves in terms of personal attributes, values, and achievements and they learn to be self-reliant, to compete with others, and to value their uniqueness.
Many Asian cultures, such as those of Japan and China, promote a view of the self as interdependent. Children from these cultures tend to describe themselves in terms of which groups they belong to. They learn to rely on others, to be modest about achievements, and to fit into groups.
Starting in infancy, we learn how to be human through interactions with other people in our culture. Without social stimulation, love, modeling and communication with others, a child does not become a normal social creature because it does not adequately develop language, or emotional expressiveness, or expected social responsiveness, or personality.
Culture cannot be separated from personality; culture mediates all thought. Human experiences and social interactions form personality marked by thought, communication, actions, customs, beliefs, values and institutions of a racial, ethnic, religious, and social group type.
Personal identity is deeply tied to cultural identity. We often believe we are destined to be like our parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents; to a great extent we are like them and their culture. Whether we are aware of it or not, we are the carriers of our cultural heritage that forms an essential part of our personal identity. It is possible, but difficult to change our understanding of our culture, but it is not possible to totally separate our personal identity from our culture. How we judge another person is a product in part of how well the individual lives up to the cultural values we ourselves have learned from our parents, teachers, and the others of significance around us.
Personality is shaped by both genetic and environmental influences. Among the most important of the latter are cultural influences. Culture is transmitted through language and the modeling of behavior when conditions permit humans to communicate through shared language, by living in the same historic period, and when they are sufficiently proximal to influence each other. Ecology, among other factors, shapes the culture, which in turn shapes the socialization patterns, which shape some of the variance of personality.Broad empirical support for such a model does exist. In addition to these factors, we consider other constructs that are needed for a better understanding of the way culture influences personality.
Reference
www.accessmylibrary.com
www.answers.yahoo.com
www.as.ua.edu
www.blogs.psychologytoday.com
www.directessays.com
www.lonnd.com
www.sparknotes.com
The cultural features of a society generate certain distinctive features in the children’s socialization. By using some common socializing elements and mechanisms, there may be formed common features of personality or a configuration of personality features typical for the members of a society. Within each society, there are one or several types of personality that the children have to copy. In the European cultures or in those of European type, to the main type of personality are associated the following features: sociability, kindness, co-operation, and even competitiveness, orientation to practice and efficiency, punctuality. The family and other factors of socialization transmit to the children these features, the conformation to them being controlled at a societal level.
The relation between culture and personality is obvious, while the personality forming consists mostly in the internalisation of the elements of a culture. In a stable and integrated culture, the personality is an individual aspect of the culture, and the culture is a collective aspect of the personality. In each society, the dominant culture coexists with a certain number of subcultures and countercultures. The socialization made within a subculture adds specific elements to the modal personality features. Thus, there appear differentiated personalities in relation to the subcultures (these latter being constituted on ethnical, social class, religious and occupational criteria.). One can differentiate the personality of a villager from that of a townsman, the personality of a worker from that of an intellectual, the personality of a Jew from that of a Turk etc.
Margaret Mead, a well-known pioneer in the field of Psychological Anthropology, studied cross-cultural patterns of child rearing. Mead's most famous study took place in 1925 in Samoa. Mead studied Samoan adolescents and determined that they were not marked by tension and rebellion as were adolescents in the United States. During her study, Samoan children were found to have more casual relationships with their parents and they also learn about sexuality naturally in the course of their daily lives. It was Mead's determination that American teenagers find adolescence stressful because they learn about sexuality at the same time they must break strong bonds with their parents. Mead also studied gender roles in three New Guinea groups and concluded that gender roles are not entirely biologically determined, but are learned during the process of enculturation.
Cultural psychologists have noted that some aspects of personality differ across cultural groups. For example, Americans and Asians have slightly different conceptions of self. American culture promotes a view of the self as independent. American children tend to describe themselves in terms of personal attributes, values, and achievements and they learn to be self-reliant, to compete with others, and to value their uniqueness.
Many Asian cultures, such as those of Japan and China, promote a view of the self as interdependent. Children from these cultures tend to describe themselves in terms of which groups they belong to. They learn to rely on others, to be modest about achievements, and to fit into groups.
Starting in infancy, we learn how to be human through interactions with other people in our culture. Without social stimulation, love, modeling and communication with others, a child does not become a normal social creature because it does not adequately develop language, or emotional expressiveness, or expected social responsiveness, or personality.
Culture cannot be separated from personality; culture mediates all thought. Human experiences and social interactions form personality marked by thought, communication, actions, customs, beliefs, values and institutions of a racial, ethnic, religious, and social group type.
Personal identity is deeply tied to cultural identity. We often believe we are destined to be like our parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents; to a great extent we are like them and their culture. Whether we are aware of it or not, we are the carriers of our cultural heritage that forms an essential part of our personal identity. It is possible, but difficult to change our understanding of our culture, but it is not possible to totally separate our personal identity from our culture. How we judge another person is a product in part of how well the individual lives up to the cultural values we ourselves have learned from our parents, teachers, and the others of significance around us.
Personality is shaped by both genetic and environmental influences. Among the most important of the latter are cultural influences. Culture is transmitted through language and the modeling of behavior when conditions permit humans to communicate through shared language, by living in the same historic period, and when they are sufficiently proximal to influence each other. Ecology, among other factors, shapes the culture, which in turn shapes the socialization patterns, which shape some of the variance of personality.Broad empirical support for such a model does exist. In addition to these factors, we consider other constructs that are needed for a better understanding of the way culture influences personality.
Reference
www.accessmylibrary.com
www.answers.yahoo.com
www.as.ua.edu
www.blogs.psychologytoday.com
www.directessays.com
www.lonnd.com
www.sparknotes.com
Subscribe to:
Comments (Atom)